I.
What
is emotion?
A.
Ancient
Greeks’ distinction between passion and reason: “passion” seen as leading to
ill-conceived, impulsive, and maladaptive behavior
B.
George
Mandler’s view: emotions are quick, motivational systems that lead to action
when unexpected events occur
C.
An
evolutionary perspective: Emotions foster animals’ survival by helping them
evaluate important aspects of their environment (environmental dangers,
predators, potential mates) and to take quick actions to assess, avoid, or
approach them
D.
Components
of emotion: Physiological reactions (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure);
expressions of emotion (e.g., facial expressions), cognitions and subjective
emotion (conscious sense of being afraid), social influences (finding a movie
funny because everyone in the audience is laughing); theories of emotion try to
explain the relation among these components
II.
Theories
of emotion
A.
James-Lange
theory: Subjective emotion results from the perception of bodily reactions (e.g.,
“I am afraid because my heart’s pounding and I feel like throwing up”); this is
sometimes referred to as a “peripheral” theory of emotion – it focuses more on
“peripheral” bodily events than on events in the central nervous system
B.
Cannon
fires back: Walter Cannon’s and others’ criticisms of James-Lange
1.
the
latency question: how quickly can emotions occur, and do they occur more
quickly than bodily reactions?
2.
How
do we tell different emotions apart: Do different emotions have different kinds
of bodily arousal associated with them, or are all emotions characterized by
diffuse, general arousal?
3.
experiments
on animals whose afferent nerves from the viscera have been cut, so animals
cannot sense what’s going on in their “guts”
4.
correlational
evidence on people who can’t sense what’s going on in their bodies – e.g.,
people with spinal cord injuries
5.
Maranon’s
studies on the emotional experiences of people who get injections of adrenaline
(epinephrine)
C.
The
Schachter-Singer two-component theory of emotion: adding cognitive labeling and
social influences to physiological arousal
1. The essence of the theory:
two components are necessary to experience a strong emotion: 1) physiological
arousal, and 2) cognitive labeling of the arousal; this often depends on the social
setting and on cultural norms
2. The Schachter-Singer
experiment: two independent variables: 1) manipulating arousal through
injections of adrenaline (ephinephrine) or saline solution, and 2) manipulating
labeling of emotion by placing people in either “angry” or “euphoric”
situations; subjects seemed to be most angry when they received adrenaline
injections, were misinformed about side effects, and placed in an “angry”
setting; similar findings for “euphoria”
D.
Adding
facial expressions to the picture
1.
Darwin’s
(1872) Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals addressed questions such
as: How and why did emotional expressions evolve? Do human emotional expressions seem to be consistent across
cultures?
2.
Two
research questions that followed from Darwin’s theories: 1) Can people
accurately judge others’ emotional expressions? 2) Are emotional expressions and the judgment of emotional
expressions consistent across cultures?
3.
Modern
research (for example, by Ekman and Friesen) suggests that people are reasonably
accurate at judging six primary emotions from facial expressions: happiness,
anger, sadness, disgust, fear, and surprise
4.
The
issue of consistency across cultures: In general, research suggests a high degree
of cross-cultural consistency, and this suggests there are biological
underpinnings to emotional expressions; the issue of “cultural contamination”
and studies of New Guinea natives
5.
The
“facial feedback hypothesis”: Do facial expressions influence subjective
emotion? A twist on the James-Lange
theory
Personality
I.
What
is personality? Personality
refers to consistent ways in which people differ in their characteristic
patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior.
Some important characteristics of personality are listed below.
A.Individual differences: The study of personality
investigates differences among people; other areas of psychology (e.g.,
learning theories) often investigate principles that are true for all
people
B. Uniqueness and
individuality: Personality studies individuals’ unique patterns of behavior and
adjustment to their environments
C. Consistencies in behavior:
Traditionally, the concept of personality has been taken to imply that people
show consistencies in their behavior, both over time and across
situations
D.Overall patterns of behavior: The study of
personality investigates overall patterns of behavior in individuals; it
studies behavior at a “molar” (broad, aggregated) rather than “molecular”
(individual habits and behaviors) level
II.
Three
broad approaches to personality
A.
Trait theories propose that people have internal dispositions, in part biologically
based, that directly influence behavior.
Examples are introversion-extraversion, emotional instability and
nervousness, conscientiousness. Trait
theories suggest that people’s behaviors show consistency over time and across
settings.
B.
Social learning theories: propose that much of what we term “personality” is
learned behavior; personality is influenced by standard learning processes such
as classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and modeling. Social learning theories propose that
behaviors may be inconsistent and situationally variable. Modern social learning theories hold that
cognitive factors (beliefs and thoughts) influence personality – for example, self-efficacy
beliefs about whether you are capable of certain actions, such as
controlling your fears or doing well in school. Examples: “masculine” and “feminine” behaviors – are they
trait-like or variable and learned?
“Moral” behaviors – are they trait-like or variable and learned?
C.
Freudian (psychodynamic) theories: propose that much of personality is
unconscious; basic biological drives – particularly sexual and aggressive drives
– are seen as important motives in personality; important aspects of personality are formed through emotional
ties to parents and caretakers early in life; Personality is often defined in
terms of defense mechanisms – characteristic ways in which we manage
unconscious impulses and ways in which we compromise between biological drives,
the demands of conscience, and the constraints of the real world. Example: Many people have intense sexual
drives and desires. How do people manage
these drives and express them (sometimes) in socially acceptable ways?
III. The Freudian approach to personality. This approach is historically and culturally important; however, it is not the focus of much current scientific research in personality.
A.
A
brief biography of Freud: Born in 1856 and died in 1939. Lived most of his life in Vienna,
Austria. A Jew who experienced
prejudice and discrimination in Austria.
Studied as a physician; turned to the study of neurosis and “hysteria.” In The Interpretation of Dreams,
Freud analyzed his own dreams and neuroses.
Freud suffered from a painful and debilitating case of jaw cancer in the
last years of his life. Toward the end
of his life, he had to flee the rise of Nazism in Vienna, and he died in
London. His personal tragedies probably
contributed to his pessimistic views of human nature toward the end of his life.
B.
Some
central assumptions of Freud’s various theories:
1.
The
important of biological drives, particularly sex and aggression
2.
The
importance of unconscious mental processes
3.
The
“hydraulic model” – unconscious drives must be channeled somewhere
4.
The
stage model: People, particularly early in life, go through discrete stages of
psycho-sexual development, which have consequences for later personality
5.
Psychic
structure or the structural model: Personality – at least metaphorically – can
be seen as consisting of different parts (the id, the ego, and the superego),
which are often in conflict with one another; personality consists of how an
individual manages the conflicts
C.
Freud’s
stage model
1.
The
oral stage—approximately the first year of life; infant focuses on oral
pleasures
2.
The
anal stage – approximately 18 months to 3 years of age; the “terrible two’s,”
in which children become stubborn and learn the word, “No!” Focus on elimination and toilet training,
which is an early “test of wills” between parent and child; the consequences of
“fixation” on anal issues
3.
The
Phallic stage (3 to 6 or so): For boys,
the child forms love attachment to mother and rivalry with father – the
“Oedipus complex”; this is supposedly resolved by the boy repressing the
complex, giving up his incestuous love for his mother, and identifying with his
father. Supposed results: sex-typing
and the acquisition of a conscience.
For girls, the child realizes she is “inferior” to males, because of her
lack of a penis. Supposedly, girls
experience “penis envy,” and they strive to regain their missing penis in
various ways – through relationships with men, through having children. Feminists argue that what Freud called
“penis envy” is really “status envy” – women don’t envy males’ organs, but rather
their prerogatives, privileges, and power
4.
The
latency period – roughly 6 or so until puberty; sexuality is repressed;
children continue social development, but personality has been largely formed
at earlier stages
5.
The
genital stage – after puberty, when people achieve “mature” love and sexual
relationships (for Freud, that meant heterosexual, coital relationships)
6.
Lippa’s
“train model” of Freud’s stage theory – “a streetcar named desire: how is one’s
cargo of “libido” deposited in the train trip of life. Note Freud’s focus on sexual
development; Freudian notions of fixation
and regression; the importance of libido (sexual drive or
“energy”) and cathexis (how sexual drive is “attached” to various parts
of the body or to mental images of people
D.
Freud’s
structural model
1.
The
Id: the source of personality, the reservoir of basic biological drives and
impulses; a baby is all id; primary process thinking and the thought
processes of the id
2.
The
ego: the rational part of personality – the part we are most in contact with in
everyday life; the ego develops from the id to help satisfy id impulses; secondary
process thinking; the ego negotiates between the desires of the id and the
constraints of external reality
3.
The
superego – the conscience; the internalized standards of parents and society;
often id impulses are in conflict with the moral “oughts” of the superego, and
personality is a matter of resolving the conflict
4.
The
Freudian metaphor: Human life is a struggle among a sex-crazed ape (the id), a
certified public accountant (the ego), and a moralistic spinster (the
superego); we must negotiate a delicate course between undercontrol (giving in
too much to the desires of the id) and overcontrol (feeling constantly guilty
and anxious because of the rigid standards of the superego)
5.
Anxiety,
conflict, and defense: Defense mechanisms are characteristic ways of dealing
with intra-psychic (within a single individual’s mind) conflicts. Some examples: repression, projection,
displacement, sublimation, reaction formation
E.
Assessment:
How do Freudians measure personality
1.
Classic
Freudian techniques: Dream analysis (the notion of manifest and latent dream
content); free association
2.
Projective
tests: the Rorschach and the TAT; can suffer from poor reliability
3.
A
major weakness of classic Freudian personality theory is that it was based on
very limited clinical samples and used ambiguous and unreliable assessment
techniques; Freud was not even sure at times whether his patients were telling
him the truth or just reporting fantasies
IV. Trait approaches to personality
A.
Traits
are internal dispositions (i.e., they are factors that reside within
individuals), determined by both biological factors and experience, that
directly influence our behavior.
Generally, trait theories argue that there are consistencies to human
behavior, both over time and across settings
B.
How
many traits are there?
1.
Allport
and Odbert (1936) counted more than 18,000 trait terms in an unabridged English
dictionary. This is termed the lexical
approach to personality. Many of these
trait words, however, overlap – e.g., “sociable,” “friendly,” “reserved,”
“extraverted”
2.
British
psychologist Hans Eysenck argued for three main train dimensions, based on the
statistical technique of factor analysis: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and
Psychoticism
3.
The
dominant model today is the “Big Five” or “five-factor” model. Based on analyses of trait lexicons (trait
words in the English language) and self-reports of behavior, five broad traits
repeatedly emerge in personality research: Extraversion, Agreeableness,
Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience
C.
Is
behavior consistent, as suggested by trait theories?
1.
Hartshorne
and May’s (1928) study of morality in children
2.
Mischel’s
(1968) critique of traits and a period of crisis in trait theory
3.
Reasons
why people may not be very consistent:
People are very sensitive to the situation they’re in and they learn to
behave differently in different settings
4.
A
research resolution: When do people behave consistently and when don’t they?
a.
It
may depend on the kind of person you are – some people are more consistent than
others on certain traits; the notion of self-monitoring
b.
Aggregation:
Although individual behaviors may not show much consistency, summed or averaged
behaviors may
c.
Strong
vs. weak situations: your personality may show itself more in some (weak)
situations than in other (strong) situations
D. Are traits for real? Three kinds of evidence that suggest the answer is, “yes”:
1. Research on agreement
between self-ratings of personality and other people’s rating of our
personality; agreement suggests that there is a reality to traits because
others observe consistencies in our behavior and agree with our self-reports
2. Longitudinal stability of
personality
3. Behavior genetic research on
personality – using twin and adoption studies to estimate the genetic, common
family, and unique environmental contributions to individual differences in
personality traits. General
conclusions: personality traits show heritability in the range of 30 to 50%;
most of the remaining variation in personality is due to unique environmental
effects
4. Predictive power: Big Five traits are related to
many important real-life outcomes and criteria including health, job
performance, and kinds of mental illness
I.
The
person vs. the situation
A.
Personality
studies internal factors that influence individuals’ behavior. In contrast, social psychology studies how
the social setting influences individuals’ behavior.
B.
Example: Do we help others because of internal
factors (conscience, moral principles, the super-ego) or because of external
factors (others are watching us, we’re alone or with others, social rewards and
punishments)?
C.
Definition: Social psychology studies how people’s
behavior (often, social behaviors such as helping, attraction, and aggression)
are influence by other people
II.
Person
perception and attribution
A.
How
accurately can people judge others – their emotions, their personality traits,
their honesty and deceptions?
1.
We’ve
already discussed judgment of emotions from facial expressions
2.
People
can judge the Big Five personality traits reasonably accurately in others –
particularly Extraversion and particularly when they know the people for a
time; however, surprisingly, recent research shows that people can even show
some accuracy when judging others based on very brief video information
3.
Laboratory
research shows that, on average, people are not very good at judging deception;
however, some people may be better than others, and some kinds of information
(the voice, the body) may give more accurately information than other kinds
(the face)
B.
Attribution
theory – how do people judge the causes of other people’s behavior?
1.
Internal
vs. external attributions and some factors that lead us to make each kind of
attribution
2.
the
fundamental attribution error – the hypothesis that people explain others’
behavior too much in terms of internal traits, and too little in terms of the
setting
3.
the
“quiz game” experiment as an example: some students make up difficult questions
for other students to answer; observers think the “quiz masters” are smart, and
the question answerers are not
C.
How
powerful is the social situation in controlling our behavior? – three examples
1.
Obedience: going along with commands from a “higher up”
2.
the
Nazi holocaust and the trial of Adolf Eichmann
3.
Stanley
Milgram’s obedience experiments: asking average people to deliver increasingly
severe and painful shocks to innocent victims in the context of a “learning
experiment”
a.
In
the basic experiment, over 60% of subjects obey completely
b.
Effects
of proximity to victim
c.
Effects
of other subjects who either go along with the experiment or rebel against him
D.
Solomon
Asch’s conformity experiments
1.
Conformity: when individuals change their opinions or
behavior to be more like a groups’, because of real or implied group pressure
2.
Examples:
when teenagers do what their peers do; when church members conform to their
congregation
3.
The
Asch experiment: an individual is faced by a unanimous majority that disagrees
with him/her; subjects are asked to judge the lengths of lines; on critical
trials, others give answers that seem obviously wrong. How much do subjects “cave in” to group
pressure?
a.
Result
of the original Asch experiment?
b.
Did
Asch subjects really believe their wrong answers? – public compliance vs. true
conversion
c.
Factors
that reduce or increase conformity: having a nonconforming peer, publicly
committing yourself before hearing the group’s opinion, group size
E.
Helping
in emergencies
1. Some
definitions: Emergency intervention:
Helping others who need helping in dangerous, emergency situations (e.g.,
drowning victims, people in a burning house, auto accident victims); Altruism: Helping others for no reward and
even at some cost to youself; Reciprocity: helping others with the expectation
that they will help you in return
2. The Kitty Genevese case: Why do
people sometimes refuse to help in emergencies?
3.
The
bystander effect – the tendency for people to be less likely to help another in
an emergency situation when other bystanders are present
a.
The
smoke-filled room study
b.
The
epileptic seizure study
4.
Latane
and Darley’s decision model
5.
Person
(conscience) vs. situation (social pressures) in helping: Darley and Batson’s “Good Samaritan”
experiment
F. The
central message of 20th century American social psychology: the
power of the social setting to influence human behavior, both for good and for
evil