"Purple Mountain Majesties"
In 1893, Katherine Lee Bates, an English teacher from Wellesley College in Massachusetts, was inspired to write the poem, "America the Beautiful," after a visit to the top of 14,110-foot high Pikes Peak at the eastern edge of the Colorado Rockies:

Atop Pikes Peak: Mountain View
In the foreground are the rails of a cog railway that visitors can take to the top as an alternative to driving. The train has gear wheels that mesh with the teeth in the center track and provide the traction when ascending the mountain and the breaking power when descending. The side tracks are only for balance.

Atop Pikes Peak: "Above the Fruited Plain"
On a clear day you can see all the way to Kansas.

Known as "Ancestral Puebloans," the people of Mesa Verde (Spanish for "green table") are perhaps best known for the villages they built under the cliffs from about 1190 to 1270 AD using advanced stone masonry techniques. These accomplishments represented the culmination of centuries of technological development following their arrival in about 550 AD. Throughout their history, the Ancestral Puebloans lived at a "stone age" level of development because their tools were made of stone, wood, or animal bones rather than metal. In addition, they did not have the advantages of the wheel, beasts of burden, or horses, and the only domesticated animals they possessed were dogs and turkeys. Despite these formidable obstacles and a harsh climate, the Ancestral Puebloans prospered through ingenuity and perseverance. In addition to stone masonry, they achieved high levels of sophistication in farming and irrigation techniques, and they were also accomplished at basketry, weaving, pottery and tool- and jewelry-making.

They left no written record so much of their history and culture remains a mystery. For example, why did they move from their mesa-top villages? Possible reasons were protection from the elements (e.g., most were built facing away from the prevailing winds), easier water collection (water percolated down through the sandstone and formed pools on shale surfaces), and food storage above ground (protection from animals).

Probably the biggest mystery is why they left their homes and moved away from Mesa Verde just a few decades after completing the cliff dwellings. Although the migration was probably clan-by-clan over a period of years, by 1300 Mesa Verde was deserted. Contributing factors were a quarter-century drought and land depletion. However, there were also signs of increasing conflict and defensiveness. Although most cliff dwellings were easy to spot from across the canyon, and were built to protect from the wind, one of the last to be built, called "Balcony House", was tucked away almost invisibly, gave less protection from the wind, and had access restricted through a narrow tunnel, something like a fortress. One of their last structures, the Sun Temple, was built of the smoothest, most finely crafted stones and afforded a magnificent view of the canyons, a mighty offering to the deity, but it was left unfinished. This seeming final appeal to remain in Mesa Verde failed to change the dynamics of the migration. The Ancestral Puebloans moved south in search of opportunities for a better life. They joined kin already living in the areas of Arizona and New Mexico, and today some tribes such as the Hopi and Zuni may include descendents of the Mesa Verde cliff dwellers.

Mesa Verde National Park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and it celebrated its Centennial in 2006.

Cliff Palace
This is the largest of the cliff communities. It is thought to have served as an administrative center and may have had the function of storing and redistributing surplus grain. In the lower right of the photo a Park Ranger discusses the site with a group of visitors.

Spruce Tree House
This is the third largest cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde and one of the best preserved. The circular structure is a "kiva" ceremonial room. These rooms were partly below ground and had roofs, most of which are gone. The T-shaped openings in the buildings are doorways. They may been designed to reduce heat loss, allowing just enough space for people to carry items in and out.

Spruce Tree House: Kiva with Roof
Visitors can enter a kiva with a restored roof by climbing down a ladder. Note how the tops of the buildings follow the contours of the cliff. One reason for building under cliffs may have been to avoid having to build roofs for some of the structures.

Square Tower House
This is the tallest structure at Mesa Verde. The Tower is nestled up against the back of the cliff and follows its contours, showing how the cliff was sometimes used to form a part of the building.

Long House
This is Mesa Verde's second largest cliff dwelling. The blackening on the underside of the cliff is from soot produced by fires that were made for heating and cooking.

The View from Sun Temple
As previously mentioned, Sun Temple was a great, unfinished structure that may have been intended as an appeal for better living conditions at Mesa Verde so that the area would not have to be abandoned.

In Panama you can go from the Pacific Ocean (Panama City) to the Atlantic (Colon) in 55 minutes by express train in the morning, explore the Caribbean coastline, rainforests, and towns and return by train in the afternoon or perhaps take a more leisurely ride on the 2-lane, trans-isthmus highway for views of daily life and the magnificent countryside. Amazingly unique and exotic, Panama has been at the crossroads of world trade, intrigue, and conflict since it was discovered by Columbus in 1501-02. It is the "bridge of the Americas" geographically, economically, and culturally (for example, Spanish is the official language but English is widely spoken and the US dollar is used as the currency). In 2,000, Panama acquired sovereignty over the Canal and the former, 10-mile wide Canal Zone as the result of a treaty signed with the US in 1977. Panamians now host tourists in areas where a few years ago the Panamanians themselves were not allowed to go. New hotels and shops are appearing, especially along the Amador causeway at the Pacific entrance to the Canal. It was built using soil that was dug out for the Canal and it links several islands previously used to store ammunition for the Canal's defense. The photos, below, show scenes from the three sets of Locks that are used to raise and lower ships in steps as they proceed across the isthmus (Gatun, Pedro Miguel, Miraflores), rain forests along the Canal, the Panama Canal Railway, historic sites in Panama City, and a fort at Portobelo on the Atlantic, an area that has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Gatun Locks
On the Atlantic side, the Gatun Locks consist of 3 chambers that progressively raise or lower ships 26 meters (85 feet). The chambers are like bathtubs that either fill with water or release it into the next chamber through underground culverts. When the water levels are equal, the steel gates open and the ship proceeds. The locks here and elsewhere are 110 feet wide, and ships are required to be no wider that 106 feet (many ships are built this wide so they can pass through the Canal). Ships move under their own power but are kept precisely on course by cables attached to electric steering locomotives on both sides of the lock. The ship shown here, heading towards the Atlantic, barely fits through the locks and seems to have just an inch or two of clearance on each side.

Gatun Gate and Historic Building
The gate is closed and a walkway leads to an historic building showing the date of completion of the Gatun Locks, 1913. The Canal opened the next year.

Ship Entering Pedro Miguel Lock
Pedro Miguel is a single-chamber lock that lifts or lowers ships 9.5 meters (31 feet). The ship shown is the maximum size for the Canal (called a"Panamax" vessel) and it is heading toward the Pacific. The channel behind the ship is the Guillard (Culebra) Cut, and the Centennial Bridge over this channel can be seen, along with another huge freighter waiting for its turn to enter the Lock.

Miraflores Locks
Heading towards the Pacific from the Pedro Miguel Lock, a ship crosses artificial Miraflores Lake and then enters the 2-chamber, Miraflores lock system, which will lower the ship 16.5 meters (54 feet). This photo was taken from inside the first chamber with the gates closed and the water level at the height of the lake. The water level in the next chamber is much lower. Water will be allowed to flow from the first to the second chamber, and when the levels are equal, the gates will automatically open and allow the ship to enter the second chamber. Amazing sidelight: all of the water in the canal up to this second chamber is fresh water from a system of dammed-up rivers and artificial lakes. When the second chamber opens, any fresh-water fish within the chamber will be killed or stunned by the salinity of the next waterway, which flows into the Pacific with no further locks. Birds have learned to associate the bubbling water at this location with the presence of easily caught fish, and they gather overhead as the gates open.

New Soldiers of Portobelo Fortress
On the Atlantic side, north of Colon, is Portobelo Bay and a system of fortresses that the Spanish used to protect shipments of gold and silver on their way from Peru to Spain. The forts were often attacked by pirates. This is San Jeronimo Fort. Here, an invasion of tourists brings out a brigade of Portobelo's newest defenders. They're eagerly running past a battery of cannons aimed at the bay. In the background is the customhouse (built 1630) that was used to store gold, silver, and merchandise being used for trade with the Indians. To the left can be seen the San Felipe De Portobelo Church, which houses the "Black Christ" statue that is venerated throughout Panama.

Ready for Battle
The defenders take up positions on the ramparts.

Gamboa Rainforest Aerial Tram
A unique and convenient way to experience the rainforest alongside the Canal is by means of a ski-lift style aerial tram operated by the Gamboa Rainforest Resort located within the Soberania National Park about halfway between Panama City and Colon. Accompanied by a guide, you glide silently up through the trees and over the canopy to an observation tower that provides commanding views of the Chagres River (main source of water for the Canal), Gatun Lake, and the Guillard Cut.

Rainforest Art
Seen from above, the canopy sometimes has the appearance of abstract art. This is another Gamboa "canvas".

Panama Canal Railway
The Panama Railroad began operating across the isthmus in 1855, long before there was a canal (opened in 1914). It was built to help gold prospectors from the US east coast get to California during gold rush days. This was considered a safer route than crossing the western frontier and risking attacks by Indians. Later, the route was changed slightly and the railway was used for the construction of the Canal. Today, it makes a single roundtrip on weekdays carrying commuters and tourists (in separate cars). It leaves Panama City at 7:15 AM and returns from Colon at 4:30 PM. This photo was taken in the luxurious observation car designed for tourists. Two Railway employees are going through the car. On the lower floor (ahead of them) is a snack bar, and behind them is an open-air observation platform, an exciting way to ride the train as it flies through the rainforest (visible through the dome).

Crossing the Chagres River
The train crosses an historic bridge over the Chagres River (the source of water for the Canal) on its way to Colon. The dome of the observation car can be seen in the distance.

Bishop's House in Panama La Vieja
Panama City was founded in 1519 and destroyed in 1671 after an attack by the pirate, Henry Morgan. This area is known as Old Panama. The city was reestablished a couple of years later in a safer location and is known as Colonial Panama. With ongoing renovations, "Casco Viejo" is fast becoming a fashionable district of today's city of highrises, which is located between its historic predecessors. This photo shows the best preserved, large structure in Old Panama, the Bishop's House (Casa del Obispo). A drawing on the sign shows the original structure, quite a contrast with what remains.

Pele is Hawaii's goddess of volcanoes and according to tradition she resides in the Halema'uma'u crater of Kilauea Volcano on the Big Island. Kilauea is located in the southeast corner of the island inside the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and is Hawaii's most active volcano, specifically, the area around Pu'u O'o crater. Lava flows from this area through underground tubes to the sea and creates new land. The photos below show Pu'u O'o, the lava field that extends to the sea (Kupaianaha Lava Shield), and the formation of a black sand beach from this field. There are also photos of Kilauea Iki crater, which erupted in 1959 and created a lava lake, and Halema'uma'u crater, Pele's home.

Pu'u O'o Vista
As the helicopter approaches, smoke from multiple vents rises to meet the clouds. The tiny speck in the left-center area of the photo is another helicopter.

Pu'u O'o Crater
A view from over the crater showing surrounding field.

Inside Pu'u O'o Crater
A close-up of the interior. A stream of red-orange lava can be seen.

Kupaianaha Lava Shield
Smoke rises from the sea as lava enters through underground tubes and forms new land. A helicopter appears as a speck in the top-center area of the photo and conveys the vastness of the lava field.

Formation of Black Sand Beach
Textured lava cliffs overlook beach carved out and smoothed by waves.

Kilauea Iki Crater Overlook
Kilauea Iki Crater is located inside Kilauea's huge Caldera (a drive around the rim is 11 miles). Iki erupted in 1959 with spectacular fountains of lava and created a lava lake that has since cooled and solidified enough to walk on. This view from an overlook 400 feet above the surface shows a portion of the crater and some people walking on a path extending out from the forest.

Inside Kilauea Iki
This photo was taken from the same path shown from above in the previous photo. Plants rise from some cracks in the lava. Steam rising from other cracks shows that the interior is still hot.

Pele's Home, Halema'uma'u Crater
This is a sacred site in Hawaiian tradition.

Akaka Falls
Akaka Falls, located in a rain forest near Hilo, symbolizes the beauty of Hawaii.